Table of Contents
Direction of the Country
Doctrine
Ever since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US has not had any strong doctrine in geopolitics. Generally, the US is anti-terrorism and promotes ideas of liberal democracy, but even in this the US flip-flops constantly. A universally agreed upon common enemy is a powerful tool that we no longer have to guide our foreign policy. Infighting has led to a deterioration of US influence and has left all the tools a rising power would need to appropriate the role we once played.
In order to secure the ideas of liberty and justice in the annals of history, we need to do more to focus our international efforts in a clear direction. It is not enough to be at the top, we must maintain our position whilst holding the moral high ground. The issue is that the longer we wait to reinforce our place, the harder it will be to maintain this moral high ground. Eventually, the only way we will be able to maintain our influence will be at the barrel of a gun and with complete disregard for our founding principles.
Neo-Monroe Doctrine
The Americas have long been under the protection of the US. There have been good and bad consequences of this protection, but the role of the US in the Americas is nonetheless important. Many Central American countries have little to no military as they know the US will ensure their sovereignty. The trust we build in the Americas is vital to our foreign policy.
It is hard to make a doctrine to protect the Americas from external influence without it effectively being a declaration of codifying our own influence, but something must be done. The CCP is working on a concerningly large amount of monopolies in Latin America1. The amount of influence the CCP has in the Americas is a great threat to not only US national security, but our trade interests in general.
Nicaragua, Cuba, and Venezuela have long been hostile to the US, but recent efforts by the CCP have made the possibility of Bolivia, Peru, and Argentina becoming our direct adversaries much more likely. The recent foreign policy of the US has done no favors to our position and seems to actively work to undermine our role as the guardian of the Americas.
Blunderous foreign policy decisions have jeopardized our influence immeasurably. Giving away the Panama Canal should be remembered because it saw the most powerful country on Earth giving away the single most strategic point on Earth for optics. This same logic was recently used in an attempt to give Guantanamo Bay, one of our most important military bases that is literally inside an enemy nation, because of the detention center. Instead of simply shutting down the detention center, the opposition to it was actively advocating for giving the entire base to a hostile communist nation.
The continued embarrassing actions of US politicians weighing in on South American elections and politicians has done great harm to our reputation for the benefit of a very small appeal to a miniscule subset of voters. The US and its politicians should not openly insult, promote, or make any statements about Brazilian politicians on anything other than their alignment to the US. All we are effectively doing is proving that we do not value long-term commitments with Latin America by letting our own partisan politics affect our extremely important relationships in the region.
Bipartisan Long Term Planning
The disadvantage to democracy is long term planning. In one party states, long term goals are what drives policy rather than election cycles. Due to the loss of the Soviet Union as a unifying enemy, there is not much that the current United States political system agrees to pursue. In order to compete with the planning ability of hostile actors, serious bipartisan foreign policy discussions are necessary.
It is unreasonable to assume the United States can maintain its place as the World Superpower if foreign policy changes drastically every 4 to 8 years. The United States has already lost large amounts of influence in the Pacific and in the Middle East due to disagreements between Republicans and Democrats. If the United States wants to make lasting relationships with other countries, then a common foreign policy framework is absolutely needed.
The People’s Republic of China
The People’s Republic of China is by far the greatest threat to the United States government, economy, and way of life. The Chinese Communist Party is an existential threat to liberal ideas around the world. Something must be done to reverse their rapid growth, otherwise the United States will be surpassed by one of (if not the) most evil governments to ever exist.
Tit-for-Tat Diplomacy
It is well known that any actions that punish the CCP for their actions will be immediately retaliated, usually in the form of arbitrary detentions. When the Huawei CEO’s daughter was arrested in 2018 by Canada, two Canadian citizens were promptly arrested on false charges of drug possession and sentenced to death. It wasn’t until Canada released the CEO’s daughter that the two Canadians sentences were magically undone.
The message is clear from the CCP, just like it is with any other criminal organization, hurt us and we will hurt you tenfold. Negotiating with terrorists can not be acceptable in US foreign policy and there needs to be a mechanism for deterring CCP attempts to force foreign governments to fold. Be it automatic sanctions upon arbitrary detentions or some other punishment, there needs to be a system in place to prevent the CCP from having their way.
Genocides
The ongoing genocide of Muslims, the oppression of religion, and the eradication of languages and culture in the PRC are well known to the international community. There has been a serious lack of action taken in response to decisions the CCP has made on religion. Why does the US not leverage the fact that Muslims are being culled in Xinjiang as a means of damaging CCP relations in the Middle East? Why do religious extremists, like the Taliban, not actively oppose the genocide? Why does the Islamic world not seem to care that the CCP is unilaterally deciding to alter the Quran to be inline with socialist ideology?
The displacement of Tibetans, the requirement that churches have pictures of Mao and Xi on either side of the altar, the lack of recognition of Judaism, and the systematic eradication of the Uyghur Muslims should all act as ample justification for more than just sanctions. The Vatican has long struggled over the appointment of bishops in China and the Dalai Lama seems to not want to reincarnate if the CCP is to oversee it. Just one of these is cause for heavy sanctions, yet feigned ignorance seems to be more appealing to the global community.
The Republic of China (Taiwan)
Ever since Nixon capitulated to the communists and made the decision to recognize the People’s Republic of China over the Republic of China, US policy on the RoC has been muddled. It is unspoken that the US will defend Taiwan from a communist invasion, as demonstrated by the Strait Crises, but the US has continued to tow the line of appeasing the CCP by legitimizing the One China Policy.
Ironically, the CCP is actively supporting the very party they were fighting in the Chinese Civil War, the Kuomintang, as the KMT still upholds being the legitimate government of China. This claim gives the CCP justification to lay claim to Taiwan just as the KMT lays claim to the mainland. This presents the US with two paths to choose from. Either the US treats the situation like the Korean split and actively seeks to have the RoC recognized in the UN in the same way that North Korea and South Korea are both recognized, or the US goes with the rapidly growing Democratic Progressive Party that seeks to make Taiwan a distinct country from China.
Going with the DPP would justify the US building strong military ties and even stationing US soldiers in Taiwan under the pretext of defending an independent nation. The result of this would be the CCP claiming the US is actively supporting revolution in China and the international community would look at it as similar to Russia’s justification for invading Ukraine. Unfortunately, if the US abandons Taiwan’s claim to be the legitimate government of China, then the legitimacy of a post-CCP government couldn’t be challenged by Taiwan.
In the end, one thing is certain if the PLA invades Formosa: the collapse of the Three Gorges Dam. It is pretty much a given that Taiwan has hundreds, if not thousands, of missiles aimed at the dam in an understanding that if the sovereignty of the island is compromised, a catastrophic disaster will cripple the CCP. It is a horrible thought, but it is effectively a threat greater than any nuclear bomb could pose. Either way, an invasion of Taiwan will be more costly than it is worth.
The Nine Dash Line
Cherry-picking historical precedents is one of the most common foreign policy moves of the CCP, using history to play the victim at the same time as justifying imperialist conquests. Often, if you pay close attention, you will hear CCP officials make claims on territories like Vladivostok because the Qing held it before 18602, yet they don’t claim Mongolia. Most of the claims of the CCP lean on the history they so thoroughly tried to eradicate in the Cultural Revolution.
Their history leads to incredibly unreasonable justification for actions. In 1898, the United Kingdom signed a treaty with the Qing Dynasty about Hong Kong, the Republic of China succeeded the Qing and took on that treaty, and the Republic of China still exists as their remaining territory has never been under their rival’s control. By this logic, Hong Kong should have been returned to Taiwan.
Tibet was annexed as a result of the same imperialist logic and their war against Vietnam should both serve to warn the sovereign states that the CCP tries to claim. Mongolia3, Kazakhstan4, Tajikistan5, Kyrgyzstan6, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal7, Myanmar, Cambodia8, Laos9, and Vietnam10 are just a few of the examples of the imperial ambitions of the CCP, not to mention the islands of the Philippines11 and even the Ryukyu islands12.
Most of these absurd claims are derived from flimsy documents from centuries ago. The Nine Dash Line is an example of one of the least supported claims. It could be pointed out that the RoC also claims the line’s legitimacy, but they also technically claim all of Mongolia still. The difference with the CCP is that they fail to recognize that the world changed since late 1800s. They are so willing to make a new treaty to supersede the Hong Kong treaty, yet they hold onto unreliable documents that the Qing made as if they were Gospel.
Neo-Iron Curtain
The Soviet Union definitely felt the effects of the severing of trade relations with the West. It is even more evident when looking at the gem of the USSR, East Germany, and realizing that it is the poorest part of modern Germany. Isolating the insanely unstable economic theories of Marx will inevitably lead them to abandon the ideas.
Unfortunately, the miraculous economic success of Neo-Liberalism in Chile was used as a justification to pump money into China with nowhere near as much thought behind it. Surely throwing money at an unstable, hostile, communist authoritarian state will result in the same economic growth as a US puppet regime in Chile.
In order to secure liberalism, freedom, and democracy in the world, the major player that is actively seeking to oppose all of those values should probably be the first target. Often it is claimed that cutting trade relations with China would hurt the United States more than China; however, not only would the United States benefit absolutely in the long run, it would absolutely devastate their economy.
When China made the immature decision to stop trading coal with Australia (a sign of their inability to make short term decisions), they quickly saw some of the worst blackouts in their history. Two years later, they are still crawling to and begging Australia to sell them coal again. If Australia is capable of bringing their power grid to its knees, it is reasonable to assume that the United States could destroy them.
Demographic Instability
There are numerous issues ongoing in the communist occupied mainland. In terms of demographics, China is doomed. The genius of the One Child Policy has almost come to fruition with a comically terrible population crisis looming. Notably, Chinese culture heavily emphasizes respecting elders and, in the not so far future, there will be more retirees in China than people to support them.
There have already been numerous protests in China over policies that dare to touch pensions, which should be shocking as protest is an alien word under the CCP’s boot. The backtracking by the CCP to undo the effects of the One Child Policy are proving increasingly difficult as they created multiple generations that do not value having children and caused a disproportionate amount of males to females. Good thing nothing bad has ever happened due to a large, frustrated young male population.
Economic Instability
Ignoring the glaring weakness of foreign trade, internally the economic situation in China is absurd. The only viable way for citizens to invest money is in 100-year leases of real estate. Unfortunate for the people, the housing market crashed and there was a banking crisis as a result. The method the CCP used to deal with the economic instability is the one they have always used: kick the can down the road.
For a long time, the CCP has dumped money into the public sector to artificially stimulate the economy. What did the CCP do when they ran out of construction projects in their own country? They started building in Africa with the requirement that all labor was to be done by Chinese laborers. Throughout their economy, the CCP uses their absolute authority to fudge numbers and balance books by force, hoping the international community won’t notice.
Though it may hurt the US economy a great deal in the short term, embargoing the PRC would cripple them. Their trade practices leave them extremely vulnerable and leaving them to their own devices will be enough to destroy them. The key part of this is timing. Currently, the CCP is desperately trying to create an alternative reserve currency and cutting them off now would see this effort collapse.
Neo-Domino Theory
Nepal13, Singapore14, the Solomon Islands15, and Samoa16 are just a few examples of countries with blatant CCP meddling. It is obvious that the CCP is trying to infiltrate their neighbors’ governments and extend their effective control far beyond their borders. There are many ways to deal with CCP foreign influence operations.
One way of thwarting this is by playing the same game as them. This would require a disregard for our morals and founding principles, but may be required to maintain influence. Alternatively, we should promote our ideals with transparency and create strong economic, cultural, and military ties that would make us more appealing than the CCP. Underhanded tactics may be effective in the short-term, but they inevitably will lead to their own undoing in the long-term.
While the reality of countries like Vietnam may have communist governments, it is notable that they are not aligned with the CCP. These communist governments should be treated like any other dictatorship. It is unfortunate that many of them are communist, but that is a much less important issue than their strategic position against the PRC.
Central Asia
First, Great Britain & the Russian Empire, then the US & the USSR, and now the PRC & the Russian Federation. The third century of the Great Game started roughly 20 years ago and has split the region between the successor to their former Soviet overlord and the rising power of the CCP. Since Russia has an absolute grip on the military security of the region, the CCP has opted to economically conquer the region.
Infrastructure, investments, and trade are the weapons of this new war. Russia does not have the same grip over Central Asia like the Soviet Union. This is very evident when the PRC has bypassed the Trans-Siberian Railway via Russia’s Southern neighbors17. The appeal of the PRC is much greater to Central Asia as the CCP is gaining influence with money as opposed to Russia’s reliance on force and their tentacles of corruption that permeate the governments.
Kazakhstan is a shining example of a potential for the US to weigh in on this new Great Game18. Kazakhstan has shown a lot of resistance to Russia recently and has shown signs of wanting to leave Moscow’s umbrella. Fortunately, the CCP has not filled their desires completely and this has left room for the US to grow her own relationship alongside the other two powers. If the US wants to be serious about geopolitics, Kazakhstan should be high on our radar.
The Middle East
Re-evaluating Wars
Israel showed the world that it is indeed possible to switch sides in a proxy war when, after popular protest to stop supporting the Nigerian government due to genocidal actions, they switched to support Biafra in 196819. Sometimes the side supported in a war is chosen for a specific reason, but it is foolish to double-down when the situation changes.
If the US had realized that the Vietnam War was a war of independence before the right-wing anti-colonialist were defeated, then Vietnam would most likely not be a communist state today. Just because France was our ally did not justify our support for their colonial forces. The fact that the US supported the colonial government shows how much the war was misunderstood inherently.
In a polarized world, it is hard to not immediately take “the enemy of my enemy is my friend” as Gospel. When Russia’s Wagner Group supplies the Sudanese Rapid Support Forces20, that does not necessitate our support for Abdel Fattah al-Burhan. We need to be more delicate with our choice of support in these situations, as the Mujahedeen showed us soon after they beat the Soviets. Solely because we consider one side to be wrong in no ways means the others are right.
Israel-Palestine Conflict
When it comes to the situation in the Middle East, most positions one can take will end up being awful in hindsight. The conflict between Israel and Palestine must be resolved in a way that will make lasting peace at the expense of each sides’ ambitions. For the foreseeable future, the US should refrain from jeopardizing our alliance with Israel due to their reliance on our aid and their relatively consistent policy towards the US, but blindly supporting Israel will only drag us into more conflict. Inherently there needs to be a compromise between the outrageous demands of both sides in order for either side to get any part of what they desire.
Despite the historical, religious, and cultural claims to the lands, the reality of the situation should be looked at pragmatically. Whether or not Israel should be where it is now is irrelevant to a solution. The reality is that Israel is where it is and any solution needs to recognize the current situation. The issue is that Israel caused a mass population move of the Palestinians and the Palestinians are seeking to cause a mass population move of the Israelis.
Almost every single mass population transfer or move has resulted in genocide; be it the Greece-Turkey population exchange, the partition of India, the expulsion of Poles, or the subsequent expulsion of Germans. Any solution the the Israel-Palestine conflict must avoid forced migration at all costs while also allowing the free transport of people to lands they both have strong claims to within living memory. Unless the revenge oriented Palestinian politics (such as Hamas) and the borderline supremacist21 Israeli politics (such as the party literally called Religious Zionism or the more extreme Otzma Yehudit) die down, no real solution will ever be found.
Syrian Civil War
The Syrian Civil War is an absolute mess. It is a convoluted web of alliances that sees the US at odds with our NATO ally Turkey. The sides of the war have switched many times and nothing has effectively changed in the war. If the US seriously cares about our interests in Syria, a comprehensive re-evaluation of the entire war needs to happen.
If the US wants Turkey to be a reliable ally, then the US would back Turkey’s efforts. The reckless switching of sides has only hurt our influence and an objective decision should be made rather than mere opposition to Russia’s support. The world has started giving Assad more legitimacy ever since his government was welcomed back into the Arab League. Unless the US wants to fight an increasingly steep uphill battle, some form of legitimacy needs to be established.
Kurdistan
Kurdistan is where our ambitions conflict with our morals. Our NATO ally of Turkey has long oppressed the Kurds and opposition to this has only worsened our ties with Turkey. It is contrary to our core principles to not advocate for the Kurds, but this will leave us isolated in the region.
Unless we find a way to make an agreement with Turkey that ensures the protection of the Kurdish people without harming Turkish sovereignty, it is unlikely we will resolve the issue while coming out on top. One option is confronting Turkey and effectively ceding the Black Sea to Russia when Turkey turns to them in our stead.
Unfortunately, supporting Kurds in Iraq, Syria, and Iran directly threatens Turkey’s sovereignty due to the prospect of a Kurdish state existing. There is no shot that the US could convince Turkey to allow for an independent Kurdistan, so our only real option is to find a way to help the Kurds with Turkey rather than without them.
Influence
Sphere of Influence
Understanding spheres of influence is essential to geopolitics. Historically, the Americas have fallen under the US sphere of influence with few exceptions. Since WW2, Europe has effectively been under the US sphere of influence. The US has foothold on every continent, but this might change unless our sphere is reinforced.
The growth of nations like Brazil threaten to create their own spheres. Saudi Arabia and Iran have recently set aside differences in order to seek leaving their respective spheres. If the US is to maintain our footholds around the world, the benefits of being aligned with us must outweigh the costs greatly. Maintaining our sphere does not mean monopolizing trade like France does with its former colonies22, but rather by creating strong investment and defense agreements that do not tread on the sovereignty of the nation in question.
Focusing on re-establishing ties with rising powers is essential to our sphere lasting. The approach should be one of a big brother giving assistance and not one of imperialism. With tools such as the wildly successful Marshall Plan we can create lasting connections that are mutually beneficial.
Competition
The CCP has been attempting to establish a large sphere of influence via its Belt and Road Initiative. Their sphere touches Africa, South America, and a large portion of Asia. Competing in these regions is essential to not being overtaken as the global superpower. We must create alternatives to the Belt and Road lest we lose influence altogether.
Apart from the CCP, other powers have long contested our influence. Russia holds a firm grip on a fair deal of their former Soviet Republics as well as in the Middle East. The primary opposition of US involvement in the Middle East is most often directly sponsored by Russia.
Internal conflicts are often representative of a struggle between spheres of influence. This is most evident in the struggle in the alignment of India. Both the US and Russia have long tried to sway India from their non-aligned stance, often leveraging their conflicts with Pakistan and the PRC. Unless the US seriously combats Russian influence in India, the US will remain dependent on the CCP in our trade.
Proxy Wars
In an age of nuclear weapons, the only realistic way to fight is by using proxy wars. With conventional war between major powers being unlikely, we have found ways to battle in other nations. Vietnam, Korea, Syria, Libya, and Indonesia represent just a few of the notable proxy wars of the last century. The issue with involving ourselves in proxy wars is in optics and legitimacy.
When Russia invaded Ukraine in 2014, the US had enough casus belli to put boots on the ground by using the Budapest Memorandum. The US chose not to uphold the agreement as we kowtowed to Russia’s claims of legitimacy. In the 2022 invasion, we once again had a perfect opportunity to use the memorandum to justify our involvement in the war directly. Unfortunately, the US decided to dump billions of dollars into Ukraine instead of being involved in the proxy war it should have been.
There is little chance the US would lose any proxy war we join, but it is unlikely we can maintain funding wars indefinitely. If the US wants to be serious about our foreign policy, the maximum action we can legitimately make in a situation should always be our focus. There is no point in having built up a century of justifications for our intervention in potential conflicts if we refuse to utilize them when the time comes.
Autarky
Self-sufficiency is important for a nation’s freedom. Nations like Jordan are unfortunately dependent entirely on US aid and not only drain our resources, but also they stunt their own development. In order to create lasting alliances and relations with other nations, the US must seek a way to involve itself without falling into the trap of endless foreign aid.
A good way of building strong relationships is to support nations in their endeavors and to build new trade agreements. Ghana recently decided to focus on developing itself by stopping the export of raw resources, like cocoa to Switzerland, in favor of processing the resources in Ghana. This will allow for Ghana to create a more sophisticated economy and will attract more investment.
If the US wants to seek a way to increase influence in a moral way, helping nations help themselves is essential. Exploitation is a fast way to build resentment and disdain; consequently, counteracting exploitation will almost certainly build very strong ties.
Statehood
Almost every nation in the Americas that has a star on their flag put it there as a symbol of a desire to join the US. This sentiment has almost certainly fallen away over the years. We need to make it clear that nations can apply to join the US consensually. The Philippines is an example of a nation that sought this and could have used our support.
Apart from adding new states from outside our grip, creating states from our territory is essential to our prestige. If we want to be seen as a genuine beacon of liberty, we necessarily need to create states out of our existing territories. The political ramifications of new states has halted efforts to increase our union, but standing on principle should be held as more important than any politician’s ambitions.
These issues of statehood have become so politically motivated that the pragmatic approach has been completely ignored. Puerto Rico should be made into a state and it should be given control over US Caribbean holdings, such as the US Virgin Islands. Guam should be united with our Pacific holdings of the Northern Mariana Islands and American Samoa into either a new state or, less favorably, be ceded to Hawaii. The part of the District of Columbia that was taken from Maryland should be returned to Maryland just like the Virginia portion was returned.
Historical Ties
The Philippines and Liberia have no reason to not be a focus of US foreign policy. The Philippines are vulnerable and would benefit greatly from improved relations with the US. It would be morally sound to seek to rectify past actions in the Philippines through new benevolent actions. If we want to be a beacon of freedom, we need to start by making amends with the people we have wronged.
Liberia is a different case. Liberia has been strongly influenced by US culture for a very long time and it is the only other government to have a US style structure of government. Liberia is a ripe fruit that is right before our eyes and we have completely looked past it. If we want to develop a strong influence in West Africa, we need look no further than Liberia.
Citation
Roy, D. (2022, April 12). China’s growing influence in Latin America. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-influence-latin-america-argentina-brazil-venezuela-security-energy-bri
Made, Jan van der. “Territorial Dispute between China and Russia Risks Clouding Friendly Future.” RFI, 21 Mar. 2023, www.rfi.fr/en/international/20230321-territorial-dispute-between-china-and-russia-risks-clouding-friendly-future. Accessed 2 May 2023.
"Dozens protest against Chinese influence in Kazakhstan". Reuters. 4 September 2019.
"China's Economic and Military Expansion in Tajikistan". The Diplomat.
"Chinese 'Expansion' in Kyrgyzstan: Myth or Reality?". Jamestown. Jamestown Foundation.
"China's Cambodian invasion". The Japan Times. 5 August 2019.
"The limits of Chinese expansionism". TNI. 29 December 2010.
Center for Preventive Action. “Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea.” Global Conflict Tracker, Council on Foreign Relations, 4 May 2022, www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/territorial-disputes-south-china-sea. Accessed 2 May 2023.
McCurry, Justin. “China Lays Claim to Okinawa as Territory Dispute with Japan Escalates.” The Guardian, The Guardian, Dec. 2017, www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/15/china-okinawa-dispute-japan-ryukyu. Accessed 2 May 2023.
Johnson, Gareth. “Is Nepal Communist? 2023 Guide.” Young Pioneer Tours, 14 July 2022, www.youngpioneertours.com/nepal-communist/. Accessed 2 May 2023.
Auto, Hermes. “S’pore Is Second Most Influenced by China in the World, according to Taiwan Report.” The Straits Times, 26 Apr. 2022, www.straitstimes.com/singapore/spore-is-second-most-influenced-by-china-in-the-world-according-to-taiwan-report. Accessed 2 May 2023.
Liu, Zongyuan Zoe. “What the China-Solomon Islands Pact Means for the U.S. And South Pacific.” Council on Foreign Relations, 4 May 2022, www.cfr.org/in-brief/china-solomon-islands-security-pact-us-south-pacific. Accessed 2 May 2023.
Davidson, Helen. “Samoa Signs China Bilateral Agreement during Pacific Push by Beijing.” The Guardian, 28 May 2022, www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/28/samoa-signs-china-bilateral-agreement-during-pacific-push-by-beijing. Accessed 2 May 2023.
Zasiadko, Mykola. “Farewell to Trans-Siberian Railway: First China-Finland Container Train Bypasses Russia.” IntermodalNews EU, 12 May 2022, intermodalnews.eu/2022/05/12/farewell-to-trans-siberian-railway-first-china-finland-container-train-bypasses-russia/. Accessed 1 June 2023.
“U.S.-Kazakhstan Relations.” U.S. Department of State, 28 Feb. 2023, www.state.gov/u-s-kazakhstan-relations/.
Levey, Zach. (2014). Israel, Nigeria and the Biafra Civil War, 1967–1970. Journal of Genocide Research. 16. 10.1080/14623528.2014.936704.
Elbagir, Nima, et al. “Exclusive: Evidence Emerges of Russia’s Wagner Arming Militia Leader Battling Sudan’s Army.” CNN, 21 Apr. 2023, www.cnn.com/2023/04/20/africa/wagner-sudan-russia-libya-intl.
Uri Ram "Historiosphical Foundations of the Historical Strife in Israel" in Israeli Historical Revisionism: from left to right, Anita Shapira, Derek Jonathan Penslar, Routledge, 2002, pp.57-58.
Andjembe Etogho, E.B., Eben, S.E.-M. and Dalton, A.L. (2022), French Neocolonialism in Africa: Historical Overview and Summary of Current Events. Am J Econ Sociol, 81: 829-849. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajes.12493
Interesting and well written!